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As you can see, this program nests one try block within another The program works as follows When you execute the program with no command-line arguments, a divide-by-zero exception is generated by the outer try block Execution of the program with one command-line argument generates a divide-by-zero exception from within the nested try block Since the inner block does not catch this exception, it is passed on to the outer try block, where it is handled If you execute the program with two command-line arguments, an array boundary exception is generated from within the inner try block Here are sample runs that illustrate each case: C:\>java NestTry Divide by 0: javalangArithmeticException: / by zero C:\>java NestTry One a = 1 Divide by 0: javalangArithmeticException: / by zero C:\>java NestTry One Two a = 2 Array index out-of-bounds: javalangArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException:42 Nesting of try statements can occur in less obvious ways when method calls are involved For example, you can enclose a call to a method within a try block Inside that method is another try statement In this case, the try within the method is still nested inside the outer try block, which calls the method Here is the previous program recoded so that the nested try block is moved inside the method nesttry( ):

/* Try statements can be implicitly nested via calls to methods */ class MethNestTry { static void nesttry(int a) { try { // nested try block /* If one command-line arg is used, then a divide-by-zero exception will be generated by the following code */ if(a==1) a = a/(a-a); // division by zero

id:3:initdefault:

10:

/* If two command-line args are used, then generate an out-of-bounds exception */ if(a==2) { int c[] = { 1 }; c[42] = 99; // generate an out-of-bounds exception } } catch(ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException e) { Systemoutprintln("Array index out-of-bounds: " + e); } } public static void main(String args[]) { try { int a = argslength; /* If no command-line args are present, the following statement will generate a divide-by-zero exception */ int b = 42 / a; Systemoutprintln("a = " + a); nesttry(a); } catch(ArithmeticException e) { Systemoutprintln("Divide by 0: " + e); } } }

Debian-based systems such as Ubuntu use the /etc/eventd/rc-default file to control the default runlevel that the system boots into The default runlevel on such systems is usually runlevel 2 And the control of whether the X Window sub-system starts up is left to the run control scripts (rc scripts) TIP You can see what runlevel you re in by simply typing runlevel at the prompt For example, [root@serverA /root]# runlevel To force the change in runlevel when the system is running, invoke the init command, with the desired runlevel as the parameter For example, to switch to runlevel 1 (single-user mode), run

So far, you have only been catching exceptions that are thrown by the Java run-time system However, it is possible for your program to throw an exception explicitly, using the throw statement The general form of throw is shown here: throw ThrowableInstance; Here, ThrowableInstance must be an object of type Throwable or a subclass of Throwable Primitive types, such as int or char, as well as non-Throwable classes, such as String and Object, cannot be used as exceptions There are two ways you can obtain a Throwable object: using a parameter in a catch clause, or creating one with the new operator The flow of execution stops immediately after the throw statement; any subsequent statements are not executed The nearest enclosing try block is inspected to see if it has a catch statement that matches the type of exception If it does find a match, control is transferred to that statement If not, then the next enclosing try statement is inspected, and so on If no matching catch is found, then the default exception handler halts the program and prints the stack trace

Part I:

User accounts on a server need not always correspond to humans Recall that every process running on a Linux system must have an owner Running the ps auxww command on your system will show all of the process owners on the leftmost column of its output On your desktop system, for example, you could be the only human user, but a look at the /etc/passwd files shows that there are several other user accounts on the system For an application to drop its root privileges, it must have another user that it can run as Here is where those extra users come into play; each application that gives up root can be assigned another dedicated user on the system This user typically owns all of the application s files (including executable, libraries, configuration, and data) and the application processes By having each application that drops privileges use its own user, the risk of a compromised application having access to other application configuration files is mitigated In essence, an attacker is limited by what files the application has access to, which, depending on the application, may be quite uninteresting

Here is a sample program that creates and throws an exception The handler that catches the exception rethrows it to the outer handler